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CONSIDER HOW ANNOYING THIS BUZZING SOUND IS - WHAT IF YOU HAD IT   24/7/52   -   AND IT WAS A WARNING OF DEATH

Mosquito - A small fly, occurring worldwide, especially in the tropics. It has long legs and a slender abdomen. In most species the males feed on plant juices, while the females suck the blood of mammals, often transmitting serious diseases - including malaria and yellow fever.

Malaria -  A serious, acute and chronic relapsing infection in humans, an infectious disease caused by a protozoa of the genus Plasmodium. Characterized by periodic attacks of chills and fever, anaemia, enlargement of the spleen - splenomegaly, and often fatal complications.Malaria is spread by the female Anopheles mosquito, which lives only in the tropics. Different species of Plasmodium cause different types of Malaria. Malignant Tertian Malaria, caused by P. falciparum, is the most severe; benign tertian malaria, caused by P. vivax,  is less often fatal but there are repeated attacks.

The parasites invade the red blood cells making them burst, causing fever, fits, diarrhoea, shock, and jaundice. Drugs can treat and prevent the disease, but malaria remains a major cause of death and ill health in the tropics.

Malaria also is found in apes, monkeys, rats, birds, and reptiles. It is caused by various species of protozoa, a one-celled organism - called Sporozoans, that belong to the genus Plasmodium. These parasites are transmitted to humans by the bite of various species of mosquitoes belonging to the genus Anopheles.

MOSQUITOES - There are approximately 3,500 species of mosquitoes grouped into 41 different genera. Human malaria is transmitted only by the females of the genus or type  Anopheles. Of the approximately 430 Anopheles species, perhaps up to 60 types actually transmit malaria, that is, are vectors of the disease.

MALARIA - A serious, acute and chronic relapsing infection in humans, characterized by periodic attacks of chills and fever, anemia, enlargement of the spleen - splenomegaly, and often fatal complications. Malaria also is found in apes, monkeys, rats, birds, and reptiles. It is caused by various species of protozoa, a one-celled organism - called Sporozoans, that belong to the genus Plasmodium. These parasites are transmitted to humans by the bite of various species of mosquitoes belonging to the genus Anopheles .

Malaria is one of the most ancient infections known. It was noted in some of the West's earliest medical records in the 5th century BC, when Hippocrates differentiated Malarial fevers into three types according to their time cycles. It is not known when Malaria first made its appearance in the Americas, but it is highly probable that it was a post-Columbian importation; some rather severe epidemics were first noted in 1493.

The association between swampy or marshy areas and the disease has long been recognized, but the roles of the mosquito and of the Malarial parasite were not known until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1880 the French army surgeon Alphonse Laveran became the first person to describe the Malarial parasite and to recognize it as the cause of Malaria. In 1897–98 the British physician Sir Ronald Ross proved that bird Malaria is transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, and he described the entire life cycle of that parasite in the mosquito. In 1898 the Italian investigators Amico Bignami, Giovanni Battista Grassi, and Giuseppe Bastianelli first infected humans with Malaria by mosquitoes, described the full development of the parasite in humans, and noted that human Malaria is transmitted only by anopheline mosquitoes. The disease can also be transmitted unnaturally by common use of the hypodermic needle, as among drug addicts, or occasionally by blood transfusion from infected donors.

Malaria occurs throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world and is the most prevalent of all serious infectious diseases. In the late 20th century, annual cases worldwide were estimated at 250 million, with 2 million deaths resulting. Incomplete or faulty reports from Africa make even those rough estimates unreliable, however. Though Malaria can occur in temperate regions, it is most common in the tropics and subtropics, where climatic conditions are favorable for the mosquitoes that transmit the disease throughout the year. In many parts of sub-Saharan Africa, entire human populations are infected more or less constantly. Malaria is also common in Central America, the northern half of South America, and in South and Southeast Asia. The disease also occurs in countries bordering on the Mediterranean, in the Middle East, and in East Asia.

Anopheline mosquitoes are the only known vectors of Malaria in humans, and about 60 different species perform this function throughout the world. These mosquitoes undergo an aquatic larval stage, pupate, and then hatch into flying adults. The females require a meal of blood to produce fertile eggs, and females of some species prefer human to animal blood. The female mosquito ingests the Malarial parasite by biting a human already infected with the parasite.

The Malarial parasite has a complicated double life cycle, with a sexual reproductive cycle while it lives in the mosquito and an asexual reproductive cycle while in the human host. While in its asexual, free-swimming stage, when it is known as a sporozoite, the Malarial parasite is injected into the human bloodstream by a mosquito, passing through the skin along with the latter's saliva. The sporozoite eventually enters a red blood cell of its human host, where it goes through ring-shaped and amoeba-like forms before fissioning - dividing, into smaller forms called merozoites. The red blood cell containing these merozoites then ruptures, releasing them into the bloodstream,  causing the chills and fever that are typical symptoms of the disease. The merozoites can then infect other red blood cells, and their cycle of development is repeated.

A small proportion of the merozoites, however, become gametocytes, or germ cells, and can go through a sexual reproductive cycle once back in a mosquito. After they have been ingested by a mosquito from an infected human host, the separate male and female gametocytes pair off while in the mosquito's stomach and unite to form a single-celled zygote, which grows to become an oocyst. This oocyst eventually divides, releasing a multitude of asexual, free-swimming sporozoites that migrate to the mosquito's head and salivary glands, where they are ready to pass into the human bloodstream during the mosquito's next bite. The entire asexual cycle is then repeated.

A remarkable feature of the asexual cycle is that the parasites grow and divide synchronously, and the resulting mass fissions, into merozoites, produce the regularly recurring attacks, or paroxysms, that are typical of Malaria. A Malarial attack normally lasts 4 to 10 hours and consists successively of a stage of shaking and chills; a stage of fever, with the temperature reaching 105° F, and severe headache; and then a stage of profuse sweating during which the temperature drops back to normal. Between attacks, the temperature may be normal or below normal. In the early days of the infection, the attacks may occur every day, but they soon begin appearing at regular intervals of either 48 hours - called tertian Malaria or 72 hours - called quartan Malaria. The first attack usually occurs from 8 to 25 days after a person has been bitten by an infected mosquito.

Four species of Plasmodium are known to cause Malaria in humans: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. Malariae, and P. ovale . The most common of these Malarial types, accounting for about 50 percent of all cases, is falciparum - subtertian, or malignant tertian - Malaria, which has the most severe symptoms and is the most frequently fatal; it accounts for as many as 95 percent of all deaths from Malaria. Falciparum Malaria requires higher temperatures for optimal development and is confined more closely to the tropical areas. In western Africa, for example, it exists almost to the exclusion of the other varieties. Once a person has recovered from falciparum Malaria, however, relapses rarely if ever occur. Vivax - tertian) - Malaria accounts for about 40 percent of all cases and is widespread mainly because of its ability to withstand therapy and to recur frequently for a period of several years, though the initial acute phase lasts only two to three weeks. The two less common types of Malaria are quartan Malaria - caused by P. Malariae, which is confined to the Mediterranean area, and ovale tertian Malaria - caused by P. ovale, which is basically confined to an isolated area of eastern Africa. Infections with one or more species can occur simultaneously, however. Furthermore, a double brood of tertian parasites can segment on alternate days, giving a daily or quotidian fever.

Besides attacks, persons with Malaria commonly suffer from anemia - owing to the destruction of red blood cells by the parasites, enlargement of the spleen, the organ responsible for ridding the body of degenerate red blood cells, and general weakness and debility. 

In falciparum Malaria, the parasitized blood cells tend to stick together, and some of the smaller blood vessels may be blocked as a result. Falciparum Malaria may also cause other complications, such as Blackwater Fever (q.v.).

Malaria can be reliably diagnosed upon finding the parasites in stained blood smears examined under a microscope. An effective treatment for Malaria was known long before the cause of the disease was understood: the bark of the cinchona tree, whose most active principle, quinine, was used to alleviate Malarial fevers from 1700 until World War II, when more effective, synthetic drugs were developed. Chief among these newer drugs are chloroquine, pamaquine, pyrimethamine, and amodiaquin, all of which can destroy the Malarial parasites while they are living inside red blood cells. In their initial decades of use, chloroquine and related drugs could relieve symptoms of an attack that had already started, prevent attacks altogether, and even wipe out the plasmodial infection entirely. By the late 20th century, however, some vivax strains as well as most falciparum strains had become resistant to the drugs, which were thus rendered ineffective. As a result, the incidence of Malaria began to increase after having steadily declined for decades. Both one's natural resistance, as occurs among those who are carriers of one gene for the sickle-cell trait, and one's acquired immunity through previous exposure will reduce susceptibility to Malaria.

The basic method of prevention is to eliminate the breeding places of Anopheles mosquitoes by draining and filling marshes, swamps, stagnant pools, and other large or small bodies of standing fresh water. DDT, dieldrin, and other, less toxic insecticides have proved potent in controlling mosquito populations in affected areas. Window screens and mosquito netting are widely used to secure interior spaces from the mosquitoes, which are mainly active at night.

  Culex Pipiens  

 The Mosquito 

 Malaria 

  Plasmodium falciparum  

The agents of malaria, called Plasmodia, are microscopic parasites measuring a few thousandths of a millimeter, which always develop inside host cells.  Of the FOUR plasmodial species that can live as a parasite in humans, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae, the most important is Plasmodium falciparum since it is both the most widespread and the only one capable of producing fatal complications.  The Plasmodia develop inside red blood cells.  They reproduce by asexual multiplication.  The affected red blood cells eventually burst, releasing their parasites which can reach other red blood cells and continue to develop.  When they burst, certain substances are released (hemozoin). They play an essential role in the appearance of the fever. 
In addition, the development of all the Plasmodia quickly becomes synchronous, so that all the infected red blood cells burst at the same time and release both the parasites and the hemozoin they contained. This blood "cycle" is the explanation for the periodicity of malarial fevers. It recurs regularly, every 48 hours for Plasmodium falciparum (malignant tertian fever) for Plasmodium vivax and for Plasmodium ovale (non-malignant tertian fevers) and every 72 hours for Plasmodium malariae (quartan fever).
After several cycles, the Plasmodia present in the blood may give rise to sexual forms whose development can only take place in the disease-carrying mosquito, the anopheles. Only the females of this insect bite humans. This "blood meal" is always nocturnal. As they ingurgitate microscopic quantities of blood, the anophelines also take in Plasmodia which multiply in the insect. After a few weeks these plasmodia give rise to infesting forms which will accumulate in the mosquito's saliva glands. Transmission to another subject takes place when the mosquito takes another blood meal. 
In the human body, the Plasmodia begin to multiply intensely in the liver. This phase is only transitory (there is no "cycle" as such) and does not cause any symptoms. The parasites then enter the blood.  There they perform the cycle we have already described, which is responsible for the various symptoms of malaria.

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TERMS

 Malaria - What is it?

  MALARIA    

Malaria is a protozoal disease transmitted by several types of the Anopheles Mosquito. The female mosquito, after drinking the blood of a person who already has Malaria, consequently then carries the minute parasitic protozoa of the genus Plasmodium - gametocytes. She is unaffected herself, but on her next feed she will inadvertently inject her victim with this parasite.

 

Whilst Malaria is mainly spread due to the bite from a Anopheles Mosquito, because the malaria parasite is found in red blood cells, it can also be passed on through blood transfusions, organ transplants, or the shared use of needles or syringes contaminated with infected blood. Malaria may also be transmitted from a mother to her fetus before or during delivery - congenital malaria.

Unless this new victim is protected by way of a drug regime, such as NIVAQUINE, they will develop Malaria. Subsequently, every mammal she bites, or feeds off in the future will take on this parasite.

The Plasmodium parasite has a complex several-stage life-cycle, where they need not only the mosquito to infuse the gametocytes, into their host, they also need the host to reproduce them along further into other stages. The infused malaria sporozoites,  are carried to the liver where they rapidly infect liver cells. Without causing any indication that the disease is present, these sporozoites undergo a radical change and multiply at a astronomical rate for the next 4 - 5 days. Tens of thousands of asexual stage merozoites are released from each infected liver cell. Taking only a week to as long as a year, these in turn speedily target and invade the victim's red blood cells. The merozoites multiply ten-fold and burst out to infect other red blood cells. This cyclic and immense increase in the parasitic burden, gives rise to the clinical disease we recognize as Malaria. Basically the body's immune system is overwhelmed; there are not enough white-corpuscles to contain all the new foreign bodies, and the red-corpuscles are destroyed. 

How Does Your Body Fight Infection?

Immunity   -  The resistance of the body to infection, especially resistance due to antibodies. Babies have passive immunity from antibodies transferred from the mother’s blood through the placenta. Active immunity involves the formation of antibodies after exposure to an antigen - bacteria that invade the body during an infection are antigens. The two different kinds of immune response produced by antibodies involve: white blood cells called T-lymphocytes - produced by the thymus, which produce cells with antibody properties bound to their surface and are responsible for such reactions as graft rejection; B-lymphocytes, which produce cells that release free antibody into the blood.

Leucocyte - lymphocytes - or white blood cell. A colorless cell found in large numbers in the blood. There are several kinds, all involved in the body’s defense mechanisms. Granulocytes and monocytes destroy and feed on bacteria and other microorganisms that cause infection -  see also phagocyte. The lymphocytes are involved with the production of antibodies.

Phagocyte   -  A cell that engulfs and then digests particles from its surroundings: this process is called phagocytosis. In vertebrate animals, phagocytes are a type of white blood cell that protect the body by engulfing bacteria and other foreign particles.

Immunization is the production of immunity by an injection containing antibodies against specific diseases e.g. tetanus and diphtheria, which provides temporary passive immunity, or by vaccination, which produces the longer lasting active immunity.

Antibody   -  A protein produced by certain white blood cells  - lymphocytes that reacts with a particular foreign particle e.g. a bacterium,  that has entered the body. The antibody helps to destroy the foreign particle, known as the antigen. If the same bacteria invade the body in future, many more of the same antibodies are produced, enabling the body to destroy the bacteria very rapidly and so resist infection. This provides the basis of  immunity. Antibodies are also responsible for the rejection of foreign tissue or organ transplants. See also monoclonal antibody.

Monoclonal antibody  -  A type of pure antibody that can be produced artificially in large quantities and used, for example, to distinguish the major blood groups. Mouse lymphocytes producing the required antibody are fused with mouse cancer cells; the resulting hybrid cells multiply rapidly and all produce the same type of antibody as their parent lymphocytes.

Whilst all this bodily protection sounds wonderful, the problem with MRSA, is that there is no defense to it, no answer to its attack.

Not every person infected dies. Some die very quickly, some live for many years, suffering intermittently with the systems that Malaria brings. Ironically it is not in the best interest of the parasite to kill its victims, because it is the infected people who live with this burden, that provide the mosquito with the tainted blood, that infects others, though this an evolutional aspect, nothing sentient. 

The Young, weak and old usually get and die from malaria, though if you are not dead within the first month, you should go on to eventually beat the disease.

Malaria, is a very old disease, in as much as it has been recorded in history, and it is believed that even prehistoric man is thought to have suffered from Malaria. It most likely originated in Africa, and went with the infected human migration to the Mediterranean shores, India and South East Asia. 

The name Malaria is Italian. In the past it was prevalent in the swampy areas around Rome, and the name is derived from the Italian, (mal-aria) or "bad air". The mosquitoes flourished in these swamps and thus so did the disease, and as the area smelt bad with the swamp gases, like sulphur / sulfur and methane, it was though that the disease came from smelling the bad air. It was also known as Roman Fever.

Today over 500 hundred million people around the world have been exposed to endemic Malaria and it is estimated to cause two and a half million deaths each year, one million of which are children.

When most Westerners go on holiday abroad, they can contact their doctors to find out what inoculations, drugs or precautions they should take when away in a foreign land. Malaria, is generally top of the list as it is so easy to catch; it is so wide spread and without the correct protection a most destructive disease, that can be with you for life. 

But it is not only prevalent in tropical areas. The so called Airport Malaria, has become a problem in recent years. A publican working in an establishment close to London's Heathrow Airport became very sick and was found to be suffering from Falciparum Malaria, he had never been out of the country. A lady driving her car past the same airport became ill with Malaria although she too had never been out of the country. Workers unloading a cargo plane at Amsterdam Airport became infected with Malaria. 

It is believed that Malaria-carrying mosquitoes were carried on planes from Africa, and released at the destination airport. They may not have lived very long but long enough to feed and pass on their deadly cargo.

 The Mosquito    

    Protection From Malaria   

 QUININE 

Family:                       Rubiaceae
Genus:                       Cinchona
Species:                     officinalis, ledgeriana, succirubra, calisaya
Synonyms:               Quinaquina officinalis, Quinaquina lancifolia, Quinaquina coccinea
Common names:    Quinine bark, quina, quinine, kinakina, China bark, cinchona bark, yellow cinchona, red cinchona, Peruvian bark, Jesuit's bark, quina-quina, calisaya bark, fever tree
Parts Used:             Bark, wood

    Protection From Malaria   

Quinine, just like aspirin, is found naturally in the bark of a tree; quinine is found in the Cinchona tree and was discovered centuries ago by Peruvian Jesuit Monks in South America. The tree is found mainly in the rainforests along the northern end of the Andes Mountain range. Legend claim that its name, “cinchona” comes from the Countess of Cinchon, whose husband cured her using the bark of this tree. It makes sense because the natives there used it to bring down fevers, hence its other name, “The Fever Tree.”    Spanish explorers first arrived here in the 1600s, bringing malaria with them, and they learned about this secret white powder from the natives, who called it, “quinquina”, or “bark of barks.”

In 1640, the Catholic Jesuits brought this drug back to Europe, but it was not popular at all among the English, who did not trust the Catholics. They described it  as The Devil's Powder.          

    However, in 1679, an English apothecary who secretly used the “Jesuit Powder” cured both King Charles II of England and the son of King Louis XIV of France of a malaria fever. After news of the cure became public, it became popular but extremely expensive; the rich were the only ones who could afford it.

Because of the prevalence of Malaria and the discovery of a cure for this deadly disease, the bark was seriously in demand. It was not  until 1820 that quinine itself was isolated from the bark. 

• Dispose of unwanted receptacles, like cans and tires.

• Clean gutters and drain flat-roofs.

• Have some fish in ornamental ponds.

• Change water in birdbaths, fountains, often.

• Clean and chlorinate swimming pools. When not regularly used, empty.

• Turn over unused wading pools, anything that is likely to collect rain.

• Cover rain drums with sheeting when storing rain for gardens.

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