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The History of the Arab

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The Sahara, a Historic Jewel:

Politically, the Sahara lies largely in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and The Sudan.

Lands of the Sahara 

Having an area: of about 9 million square kilometers, which is: 3,474,171 square miles, makes the Sahara the Great, a land of quite huge dimensions. This amazing photograph by Yann Arthus-Bertrand represents this fact quite clearly. You almost expect to see a large discernible footprint manifesting itself in the sand, but a closer look reveals a caravan of ant-like people making their way through,  the Sahara.

Arab horse  - An ancient breed of horse originally bred by the Bedouins in Arabia. It is usually grey, chestnut, or bay with a long silky mane and tail, a wedge-shaped head, and an arched neck. The Arab is prized as a riding horse because of its speed, hardiness, and docile temperament. Height: 1.42–1.52 m (14–15 hands).

Arabia  - A peninsula in the Middle East, forming the SW tip of Asia and bordered by the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Oman, and the Persian Gulf. It consists of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait. History: as remains of irrigation systems show, S Arabia was the site of technologically advanced ancient civilizations. It was conquered briefly by the Persians in 575 AD and later unified from Mecca by Islam in the 7th century. From the 16th century until World War I the Ottoman Turks held nominal control over much of the peninsula, challenged chiefly by the Wahhabiyah. From the mid-19th century until the late 1960s the UK was the chief foreign presence.

Arabian Desert. -  A desert chiefly in Saudi Arabia, covering most of Arabia. Area: about 2 300 000 sq km (887 844 sq mi). 2. A desert in E Egypt between the River Nile and the Red Sea.

Arabian Sea  -  A section of the NW Indian Ocean between Arabia and India. Connected to the Mediterranean Sea by the Red Sea and the Suez Canal, it forms a major shipping route.

Arabic  - A member of the Semitic group of languages. It is written from right to left. Arabic is the mother-tongue of some 110 million people inhabiting SW Asia (the Middle East) and the countries of N Africa. Arabic can be roughly grouped into three parts: (a) Classical Arabic, the language of the Koran and the great Arab writers and poets; (b) Modern Literary, or Standard, Arabic, used in the press and broadcasting; and (c) the spoken dialects (vernaculars), which differ from country to country.

Arabic numerals The number symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. They are believed to have originated in India and were introduced into Europe by the Arabs in about the 10th century AD. Compare *Roman numerals.

Arab League An organization formed to promote Arab unity and cooperation. Formed in Cairo in 1945, it consisted of those Arab countries that were then independent; others joined on winning independence. Palestine, represented by the PLO, is a member. The League has had some success in the scientific and cultural field but in politics has often been split. In 1979, following the Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty, Egypt was expelled from the League, which moved from Cairo to Tunis: it returned when Egypt was readmitted in 1989.

Arable farming The cultivation of plants for food, fibres, vegetable oils, etc. Arable farming is often carried out along with livestock farming, enabling the farmer to grow his own animal feeds and to make use of animal manures as fertilizers. Grass is the chief feed for ruminant livestock and a major arable crop.

Cereal crops are a principal source of food and animal feedstuffs. The major cereals are wheat, barley, rice, and maize with oats, millet, sorghum, and rye grown in smaller quantities.

Beans are grown as a major source of vegetable protein, the most important being soya beans, produced chiefly in China and the USA. Crops grown for their oil content include sunflower, groundnut, linseed, cottonseed, and rape. Modern pesticides and fertilizers, together with better farming equipment, irrigation, and plant breeding have resulted in dramatic increases in crop yields, bringing about a Green Revolution, especially in developing countries.

Arabs -  A Semitic people originally inhabiting the Arabian peninsula. They are roughly divided into two cultural groups: the nomadic Bedouin tribes and the settled communities of the towns and oases.

Much of this seemingly limitless wasteland would appear to be void of anything. However, such is its history, it substantiates that it has been a cultural treasure. This page describes the last few thousand years. The History of the Arab, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Sudan, Information, Facts on the Sahara, The Sahara and Global Warming, the desert, the Sahara desert, the geography, its climate, mirage, dunes, war, people, tribes, politics, myths, religion, Berbers, Tuaregs, Arabs, Islam, Muslim, wildlife, animals, Sahara desert pictures, pictures of the Sahara desert, Sahara desert animals, Sahara desert images, pictures of Sahara desert, Sahara desert pix and Sahara desert climate.

The Sahara.

The largest desert in the world, covering most of North Africa. The terrain consists chiefly of a plateau with central mountains rising to 3,415m  (11,204 ft) and some areas of sand dunes. There are large deposits of oil and gas in Algeria and Libya and phosphates in Morocco and Western Sahara.

Area: about 9 million sq km (3,474,171 sq mi).

Ancient Map of the Sahara 

  Egypt & Co

                     Lands of the Sahara

When we think of the Sahara and all the countries that it encompasses, it is so vast that a thousand and one scenarios could be dug up in any fertile imaginative mind. Maybe due to the movie industry though, Egypt and its own immeasurable history comes up first in our cerebral search when we think of the Great Sahara. However politically, the mighty Sahara envelops Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, and the Sudan and all have their own unique slant on the past. Today, when all the world is just a day away, far off lands are no longer quite so far off. 

In terms of millennia past though, to get from the Sudan to Morocco was as difficult as getting to the Moon was for people of the twentieth century, especially as the heart of the Sahara was some large ocean of dryness, hot Suns and scorching feet. So civilizations flourished more so on the periphery and the shifting sands were something that you went around unless you were of a special kind.

Africa  The second largest continent in the world. A notable feature of the NE is the Great Rift Valley, which contains freshwater lakes as well as the continent’s highest point, Mount Kilimanjaro. The principal rivers are the Nile, Niger, Zaire, and Zambezi. Africa’s climate and vegetation vary considerably from the arid desert of the Sahara to the tropical rainforest of the Congo basin. The inhabitants of Africa are principally of Negroid origin, although the Berbers remain dominant in N Africa and the Sahara and there are a few Cushite-speaking peoples in the NE. History: Louis Leakey’s finds of hominoid man at Olduvai Gorge are evidence of Africa’s long history. The earliest African civilization was established in Egypt in about 3400 BC. From the 7th century AD Arab influence was strong and Islam spread with trade across the Sahara and on the East African coast. Several African kingdoms and empires emerged during this period, notably the Sudanese empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. From the 15th century European exploration and exploitation began, initiated by the Portuguese. Slaves, ivory, and gold were exported from Africa from the 17th to the late 19th centuries. From 1880 to 1912 most of Africa was divided by the European powers, creating new political boundaries; this resulted in long-standing problems (see also South Africa, Republic of). In the 1950s there was movement towards independence and Africa now consists of independent nations. Area: about 30 300 000 sq km (11 700 000 sq mi). Population (1984): 537,000,000. 

Much of what we call African civilization developed in Africa during the African Aqualithic. During this period in the Fertile African Crescent these folk have left beautiful drawings which illustrate their way of life in Tassilli n'Ajjer, and the northern foothills of the Hoggar massif. 

During the African Aqualithic, there was higher rainfall in Africa which made the rivers longer and more permanent. This caused rivers to swell and burst over there basins. The people used wavy line pottery. They also invented agriculture and domesticated many animals. 

AGRICULTURAL DOMESTICATION

Agriculture has long been practiced in Nubia. The most ancient grasses collected in Africa were found in Nubia. Here barley and sorghum was collected. As early as 17,000 B.C., barley was being cultivated at Tushka. These farmers were probably the Anu. 

One of the most ancient sites for agricultural domestication in Nubia or the Central Sudan, was discovered at Es Shaheinab dating to 4000 B.C. Here riverine folk bred goats and sheep. They also engaged in fishing and collected grasses. Kadero is another ancient site of agriculture in Sudan. Here as early as 3310 B.C., sorghum and millet were being cultivated/ collected. 

Other African grasses domesticated outside of the Nile area include guinea corn, bulrush millet and fonio. The earliest evidence of bulrush millet dates to 1200 B.C., and comes from Mauritania. By 3000 B.C. rice was being cultivated. 

Formerly it was believed that the Niger Valley was a center of plant domestication. The earliest northwest African sites for agriculture include Dar Tichitt Daima ,Kurrasakata and Karkarchinkat which date to around 2000 B.C. 

Today archaeological research indicates that much of the Niger area was thick forest until quite recently. (Winters 1986) 

It would appear that the present inhabitants of West Africa came from the North and the Nile Valley.

The Egyptian term for cultivation is 0 b j(w) #. Egyptian 0 b j(w) # corresponds to many African terms for cultivation: Galla baji 'cultivated field' 

Tulu (Dravidian language) bey, benni; Nubian ba, bat 'hoe up ground'; Malinke be; Somali beer; Wolof mbey, ambey, bey; Egyptian b j(w); Sumerian buru, bur 'to root up';

These terms for cultivate suggest that the Paleo-African term for cultivate was *be. 

The Paleo-Africans used the hoe to cultivate their crops. The Egyptian terms for hoe are 0 hbs # and 0 wb #, which mean 'to open up' in Egyptian. These Egyptian terms are analogous to Black 

African and Dravidian terms for hoe: 

Tamil (a Dravidian language) parai; Nubia bat ; Malinke daba; Egyptian per 'to plough'; Hausa fartanya; Kannanda (a Dravidian lang.) pare ; Swahili palile; Egyptian hbs ; Galla buqis 'root up '; Sumerian buru 'to root up' 

It would appear that contrast exist between b and (f)_______p. 

This indicates that in Paleo-African that b < p. The Paleo- African term for hoe was probably *ba(r)/pa(r). 

The Paleo-Africans also possessed other terms for hoe: 

Malayalam (a Dravidian lang.) kuntali 

Tamil kuntali 'pickaxe'; Nubian Kadid; Wolof konko; Malinke kope, daba; Galla doma; Hausa garma; Kpelle kali; This evidence suggest that t > d. The phonological contrast between t =/= d, highlight the alternation patterns of many Paleo-African consonants including b =/= p, l =/= r, and g =/= k. 

The Egyptian term for grain is 0 sa #. This corresponds to many African terms for seed,grain: 

Galla senyi; Malinke se, si; Sumerian se; Egyptian sen ‘granary’; Kannanda cigur; Bozo sii; Bambara sii; Daba sisin; Somali sinni; Loma sii; Susu sansi; Oromo sanyi; Dime siimu; Egyptian ssr ‘corn’; id. ssn 'lotus plant'; id. sm 'herb, plant'; id. isw 'weeds' 

The identification of a s>0/#_________e pattern for 'seed,grain' in the above languages suggest that these groups were familiar with seeds at the time they separated into distinct Supersets. The fact that Sumerian 0 se # and Egyptian 0 sen #, and Malinke 0 se # are all separated both in time and geographical area highlight the early use of seeds * se, by Paleo-Africans. 

Dr. Clyde A. Winters - One of the leading advocates of Afrocentric Ancient History

One of the most astonishing facts about Egypt is how little everyday life changed over the millennia. The rhythm of Egyptian life was the rhythm of the Nile until a few years ago, when the Aswan dam was erected. Even today one can find the ancient shadoof, oxen pulling ploughs and houses made of mud bricks.

The gods are gone, so are the pharaohs, the language and the writing. The cities look European in a ramshackle sort of way, transportation is partly 20th century, there is some industry, and radio and television are everywhere. Nevertheless, villages in the farther off corners of the country must still look very much like those of thousands of years ago. 

ANIMAL DOMESTICATION 

As early as 15,000 years ago cattle were domesticated in Kenya. In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals including the pack ass, and a small screw horned goat, which was common from Algeria to Nubia. 

The zebu or humped cattle are found in many parts of Africa.The oldest faunal remains of the Bos Indicus come from Kenya, and date to the first millennium B.C. 

The recent evidence that Bos Indicus , humped cattle, may have originated in East Africa suggest that this type of cattle may have first been situated in Africa, and then taken to Asia by the Proto-Saharans. This view is supported by the fact that the advent of the Bos Indicus, cattle in Egypt corresponds to the migration of the C-Group people into the Nile Valley. The C-Group people came from the Fertile African Crescent. Augustin Holl (1989) has made it clear that pastoralism was the first form of food production developed by post Paleolithic groups in the Sahara.  

In the western Saharan sites such as Erg In-Sakane region, and the Taoudenni basin of northern Mali, attest to cattle husbandry between 6000 and 5000 B.P. Cattle pastoral people began to settle Dar Tichitt and Karkarchinkat between 5000 and 3500 B.P. 

There are corresponding terms for cattle in African languages:      

Egyptian ng, nag; Azer na Nuer yang; Soninke na; Baguirmi m-ang, mang; Gourmantihe nua, nue; Gbea m-angu, mangu; Senufo nu; Sar(a) m-ang, mang; Ewe nyi; Wolof nag; Boua nya; Peul nag; Amo na; Angas ning; Baya nday; Susu ninge; Gera ndiya; Serere nak; Tamil naku; Mende nika; Hausa nagge; Burma nak; Jarawa i-nyak; Kagoro nyak; Burak nyek; Bobo nyanga; Duala nyaka; Fang nyar; 

The correspondence between African terms for cattle support the archaeological evidence for the early domestication of cattle in the Fertile African Crescent. The oldest written evidence from Africa comes from the Egyptian language. The terms for 'cow' in Egyptian are ng and nag. In African many these languages we find either the consonant /n/ before the consonant g/k e.g., n/v________(v)g/k or a nasal consonant /n/ before the vowels -i/y and -a, e.g., n+/ a, n+/i+a= nia or n+y+a +nya.

During the Aqualithic period, due to abundant fertility in the Sahara , many people herded cattle. Nabta was located on the shoreline of a lake 11,000 years old. 

A center of cattle worship was Nabta. At Nabta archaeologists have found the oldest megalithic site dating to 6000-6500 BC, which served as both a temple and calendar. This site was found by J. McKim Malville of the University of Colorado at Boulder and Fred Wendorf of Southern Methodist University. 

Temple at Nabta

This sacred Proto-Saharan site at Nabta is spread over 1.8 miles. It is made up of large slabs of stone, some over 9 feet high and weighing up to 200 or 300 pounds apiece. It also has a number of tomb-like stone structures, now toppled and upright megaliths. 

The Nabta calendar site is 12 foot wide with slabs around 18 inches long shaped like a circle. It contains two pairs of upright stones, which displayed sunrise during the Summer Solstice. These slabs are usually situated in an east-west direction. Another pair of stones were set up on a north-south direction.

There are numerous artifacts at Nabta which suggest that this was a center of cattle worship. For example, at Nabta one of the rocks at Nabta looks like a cow. Moreover, archaeologists have excavated a total of nine cattle burials at this site. 

The Paleo-Africans also domesticated sheep and goats. By 6000 B.C. goat and sheep were domesticated in Tadrart Acacus. Theophile Obenga (1988) has already used linguistic material to highlight the domestication of the goat/sheep. The Egyptian term for sheep/ram is 0 zr #, 0 sr #.

In sheep we find either the consonant /s/ or /z/ before the consonant /r/ for example s>0/#_________r. This corresponds to many other African terms for sheep/goat as outlined below: 

Egyptian sr, zr; Coptic sro; Kwa siri; Amo zara; Dravidian kuri, korri; Bambara sarha; Sumerian zar, sar; Wolof xar; 

The linguistic data from the Niger-Congo, Nilo-Saharan, Egyptian and the Mande Superset groups show cognition for the term for cattle/cow and sheep/goats in consonants and vowels as illustrated below: 

1. Correspondence of consonants with in roots Niger-Congo Nilotic Mande Chadic Egyptian -g/-k g -g/-k -k -g -s- -s- -z- s/z -n- -n- n- m- n- 

2. Correspondence of vowels within roots Niger-Congo Nilotic Mande Chadic Egyptian -i/y i/y i/y y a/u a a/u a/u a 

The camel may have also been domesticated by Africans. As early as the Old Kingdom camel hair cord was used by the Egyptians. Moreover camel figurines are found in Gerzean artifacts in an archaic Egyptian context. This along with rock drawings of camels and horses in ancient Nubia, suggests an archaic domestication of these animals by the Paleo-Africans. 

In ancient times the horse and ass were used to pull chariots. But as the Sahara began to dry up, due to a lack of abundant water the horse was abandoned as a means of transpor- tation in the Sahara .

Berbers A Muslim people occupying parts of N Africa (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and nearby regions) and speaking a non-Semitic language. Before the introduction of Arabic speech in the 7th century AD, Berber languages were spoken over the whole of the area and are still spoken by an estimated ten million people; Morocco is still mainly Berber in population.

Algeria is a relatively a new name for a country that carves its way deep into the Sahara. The very first name it had was Icosium, and the name changed through time as different conquerors inherited it. It has been called Lybia, Mauritania, Numidia, and even Africa.  Although most of the desert boundaries have changed intermittently, it remains one of the largest countries in the world with one of the smallest populations. 

Its long coastal head juts out into the Mediterranean it has always been the gateway from Europe. Their. ordeals were only a momentary success, and what they amassed collapsed soon after their death. 

Therefore, the old traditions were restored as the only way to defend themselves against the invaders Ancient

Algeria, a country in N Africa, on the Mediterranean Sea. It consists chiefly of the N Sahara Desert, with the Atlas Mountains in the N and small fertile areas near the coast. The inhabitants, who live almost entirely in the N, are mainly Arabs and Berbers. Economy: mainly agricultural although industrialization has proceeded rapidly since independence, financed by the discovery of oil (the main export) and natural gas in the desert areas. History: a former province of the Roman Empire, in the 7th century Algeria came under the control of the Arabs, who introduced Islam. Overrun by Turks in the 16th century, it became a pirate state in the 18th century ruled by deys, who preyed on Mediterranean shipping. Algeria was annexed by the French in the 19th century and in 1881 the N section became part of Metropolitan France. A war of independence, waged by the Front de Libération nationale (FLN), lasted from 1954 to 1962 when independence was granted by de Gaulle. A republic was set up under Ahmed Ben Bella but was overthrown in 1965 by a Council of Revolution. Col Houari Boumédienne (1925–78) became president; he was succeeded in 1978 by Col Benjedid Chadli (1929–  ). After riots, a multiparty system was introduced in 1989. Islamic fundamentalists won an election in 1991 but were prevented from taking power by the military. Official language: Arabic; French is also widely spoken. Official religion: Islam. Currency: dinar of 100 centimes. Area: 2 381 745 sq km (919 595 sq mi). Population (1988 est): 23 546 000. Capital and main port: Algiers.

Algerian society had no historical dynasty, no military class, no nobility, and therefore Algerians for the majority, developed in a primitive state, faithful only to the principles and rules of family life and their clan. Governed

by a unique judicial dogma Algerians thrived on a neo-socialist regime of needs and use. In spite of this deep-rooted political and social society, some tried to establish a State with new institutions and traditions, following the examples of Rome and Carthage.

By the third century BC, Greeks started being interested about Algeria as it was the stepping stone into the Sahara and they marveled at what might lie beyond. One century later, Romans – who succeeded the Greeks as the Mediterranean great power also began to be interested in Algeria as a land to conquer.  As they penetrated into Africa, Algeria was already divided into three “Kingdoms”:

1.. MASSAESYLIA or MASSASYLIA in the west, having Siga as its capital.

2. MASSYLIA in the east with Cirta as the capital city.

3. GUETULIA in the south.

They formed a confederacy, with an elected military chief at its head. This leader had the title of Aguellid and was chosen by his people for his moral values and his courage but did not reign long because as soon as he failed in his duties, he was dismissed.

Tunisia.                    The Republic of al-Jumhuriyah (Arabic) A small country in N Africa, bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. Economy: predominantly agricultural, the chief products include wheat, olive oil, citrus fruits, dates, and wine; livestock is also important. Tunisia is one of the world’s largest ongoing producers of phosphates. Oil, iron ore, and lead are also mined. Industry includes oil refining, cement, and steel processing. History: first settled by the Phoenicians, it developed into the empire of Carthage and was later absorbed into the Roman Empire. Under the dynasty of the Berber Hafsids (1207–1574) it became powerful. In 1883 it became a French protectorate, that gained independence from France in 1956. Habib Bourguiba was elected president in 1957 and reelected as life president in 1974. He was deposed in 1987 and replaced as president by Gen Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali. Official religion: Islam. Official language: Arabic; French is widely spoken. Official currency: Tunisian dinar of 1000 millimes. Area: 164 150 sq km (63 362 sq mi). Population (1988): 7 750 000. Capital: Tunis.

Qayrawan, Al.     (äl kiräwän´) or Kairouan , city (1994 pop. 102,600), NE Tunisia. 

It is a sacred city of Islam. Founded in 670 by Uqbah bin Nafi, an Arab leader, it was the seat of Arab governors in W Africa until 800. Under the Aghlabid dynasty (800-909), it remained the chief center of commerce and learning. It was the first capital (909-21) of the Faatimids. 

When the city was ruined (1057) by invaders, it was supplanted by Tunis. Of Al Qayrawan's 150 mosques, the most celebrated is the Great Mosque, started by Uqbah bin Nafi and completed in the 9th cent. The city is noted for its carpet industry

Libya. Rome invaded Libya attacking Tripoli in 106 BC, but it took nearly 40 years before Julius Caesar's legions had completed the occupation. Under the Romans, like most parts of the Empire, Libya was prosperous, reaching its most prominence around the 2nd century AD. The three principal Roman cities of Sabratha, Oea and Leptis Magna provided the Empire with grain, oil and a supply of slaves and exotic goods from sub-Saharan Africa.

However, the inevitable decline of the Roman Empire saw these classical cities reduced to rubble, a process accelerated by the Vandals' devastating philistine sweep though Northern Africa around 500 AD.  Just like Tunisian history the Byzantines also followed a hundred years later but took over and made efforts to strengthen the old cities, but it was only a last desperate attempt before they collapsed into disuse not having the Roman knowledge and network for support. Moreover, it is only Oea, which survives today as Tripoli, the nation's capital. Once the Arabs and Islam had invaded Libya, the future was set for all time. Arab rule was culturally fruitful, and many examples of early Islamic architecture remain, especially in the oases of the south. Arabs ruled Libya until the Turks conquered it about 1550 AD, governing it through a succession of locally appointed leaders

The Koran

Sphinx. A mythological creature with a lion’s body and a human head, occurring in the art of Near and Middle Eastern civilizations. The most famous is the Great Sphinx at Giza, Egypt, dating from the 3rd millennium BC. In Greek legend, the Sphinx was a female monster that preyed on travelers to Thebes. She killed those unable to answer her riddle, which was solved by Oedipus. It is said that Napoleon's army used the face of this fine carving for target practice. More alarming is that the sphinx is said to be about 5,000 years old but in fact the statue was carved around 12,500 years ago. The original body and face was that of a lion, instead of the present configuration. Apparently due to torrential precipitation for many decades much of the statues were eroded. The remarkable Egyptians re-carved the head to that of the Sphinx.

Above all else, historically we know Egypt for its pyramids, but these were not simply constructed blocks of stone used to indicate the grave of a pharaoh; they were not like today’s mausoleum or tombstone. To think so is to misinterpret completely what the ancient Egyptians believed when it came to the concept of kingship. Pharaohs were not just people who ruled over a great nation, such as Elizabeth I did in England. 

They were the reincarnation of the Falcon God Horus and when a pharaoh went to meet Osiris, the god of the underworld, this was the euphemistic way to denote the death of a pharaoh. Moreover, the spirit of Horus passed into the next king. The deceased pharaoh then became a god and therefore the pyramid in which he was concealed became a temple to him; a church in a long line of churches. After and during the building of a pyramid, a whole network of support services emerged in the district to preserve it. Housing was needed for the priests who manned the temples, for the sentinel who protected the body of the new god from thieves who would often ransack a tomb to get their hands on the treasures, that were always buried with the deceased. Farms and villages grew up to supply workers and food for the workers, and so it went on, a myriad of industries being established just to take care of a block of constructed stone.

Isis. An Egyptian goddess, the sister and wife of Osiris, whose dismembered body she magically restored to life, and mother of Horus. She was portrayed holding Horus and wearing on her head the sun’s disc and a cow’s horns.

Horus The Egyptian sun god, usually portrayed as a falcon or with a falcon’s head. He was the son of  Osiris and Isis. The pharaohs were regarded as the incarnations of Horus.

Osiris The Egyptian god of the dead, the brother and husband of Isis; as the father of Horus (the sun), he was also the god of renewal and rebirth. He was killed by his evil brother. After Isis had magically reconstructed his body, he became ruler of the underworld. Dead pharaohs became identified with Osiris.

Tutankhamen, King of Egypt (c. 1361–1352 BC) of the 18th dynasty. He became king at the age of 11. He replaced Akhenaton’s worship of the sun-god Aton with that of Amon and returned the capital to Thebes. His tomb was discovered by Howard Carter (1874–1939) in 1922.

Egypt, Arab Republic in NE Africa, extending into SW Asia. Most of the country consists of desert—the Sinai Peninsula, the Eastern Desert, and the Western Desert, the population being concentrated along the fertile Nile Valley. Economy: modern irrigation schemes, such as the Aswan High Dam, have led to an increase in the production of cotton, the chief cash crop and there has been considerable expansion of industry since the 1950s. Oil was discovered in 1909 and in recent years, production has greatly increased. Egypt’s archaeological remains make tourism important. History: ancient Egypt was ruled by 30 successive dynasties of pharaohs from about 3100 BC until 343 BC. The famous pyramids were built in the period c. 2686–c. 2160. Notable rulers included Thutmose III and Ramses (II) the Great. Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332. On his death the Macedonian, Ptolemy I, acquired Egypt. The Ptolemy regime ruled until the suicide of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, when Egypt passed under Roman rule. In 395 AD, Egypt became part of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. The Arabs conquered Egypt in 642, after which it was governed by a series of caliphs under whom Islam was introduced. From 1250 until 1517, the Mamelukes ruled it, when the Ottoman Turks conquered it.

In 1798, Napoleon established a French protectorate over Egypt, which in 1801 was overthrown by the British and Ottomans. In 1869, the opening of the Suez Canal gave Egypt greater international significance. From 1882, the British dominated Egyptian government. In 1914, on the outbreak of World War I, Egypt became a British protectorate until independence under King Fu’ad I was granted in 1922. In 1936 his son Farouk signed a treaty of alliance with Britain, which retained rights in the Suez Canal zone. The postwar period saw the first Arab-Israeli War (1948–49) and a military coup (1952) that overthrew the monarchy (1953) and brought Nasser to power (1954); he nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956.

In 1958 Egypt, Syria, and subsequently North Yemen formed the United Arab Republic, a name retained by Egypt until 1971. In the Six Day War with Israel (1967) Egypt lost the Sinai peninsula, which was partly regained in 1973. In 1970 Nasser was succeeded by Sadat. In 1979, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty. Sadat was assassinated by Islamic extremists in 1981; he was succeeded as president by Hosni Mubarak (1929–  ). Official language: Arabic. Official religion: Islam. Official currency: Egyptian pound of 100 piastres. Area: 1,000,000 sq km (386,198 sq mi). Population (1987 est): 49,280,000. Capital: Cairo. Main port: Alexandria.

Mauritania. This Saharan country can be divided culturally into two peoples, with the north being Arab and Berber and the south being Black African. Over hundreds of years, the southern part of Mauritania belonged to the kingdoms of Ghana, then Mali, and finally Sanghay. In the early 1400s, the Portuguese arrived to trade. Their dominance in the area was unchallenged for the next one hundred years when the British, French, and Dutch each contested the Portuguese control.

It is not easy to imagine now, but like most of the Saharan region, Mauritania once had large lakes, rivers and enough flora to support a profusion of elephants, hippos and rhinos. There is even evidence of human habitation in the manner of arrowheads, some bones and rock drawings linked to the ancient Bafour people. This all came to, geologically speaking, a sudden stop when the Sahara began desertification, approximately 10,000 years ago.

Around 300 BC the camel was discovered and utilized by the Berbers in Morocco. For the people of Mauritania, this meant the arrival of the nomads and of course the camel, as travelers of arid regions were then able to cover longer distances with these ships of the desert. They traded salt, gold and slaves - throughout the Western Sahara. In the 9th and 10th centuries, the first empire in West Africa emerged. Known as the Empire of Ghana, it had its capital in southwest Mauritania. Their nomadic rulers reduced the Berbers who had settled in the region to vassals and Islam began spreading throughout the region, which continued to strengthen the Arab culture that survives today

Camel.  A hoofed mammal used for riding, as pack animals, and as a source of milk, meat, wool, and hides. The one-humped Arabian camel is about 2 m high and generally brown. The dromedary is a long-legged breed of Arabian camel developed for racing and riding. The heavier two-humped Bactrian camel is native to central Asian steppes, where wild herds still exist. Adapted to living in sandy deserts, camels can close their nostrils; have heavy protective eyelashes, and horny kneepads for kneeling. Camels can replace rapidly the water that is lost from the body, drinking up to 60 liters of water at a time. Fat (not water) is stored in the hump, which shrinks when food is scarce.

Islam  (Arabic: submission to God) A world religion, started in Arabia in the 7th century AD, the main belief of which is that there is one God, Allah, and that Mohammed is his prophet. The Koran, the basis of Islamic belief, and its legal and social system, records Mohammed’s revelations. Followers of Islam, called Muslims, have five main duties: belief in Allah and Mohammed; observance at set times of five daily prayers; fasting during Ramadan; payment of a tax for charity; and a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once. The main sects are the Sunnites (or Sunni) and the Shiites (or Shiah). There are an estimated 450 million Muslims worldwide.

Mali is a nation old enough to have historical rock paintings that date back to a time when the Sahara was a blossoming paradise. The first recorded empire that covered the northwest region of this great desert was the Empire of Ghana. However, this had its downfall, around 1100 AD, when the Arab occupation spread further. The Muslim Berbers from Mauritania and Morocco objected to the mild mannered attitude in which the empire embraced Islam. By the middle of the 13th century, through political reasons the leader of the Mandinka people had strategically converted his people to Islam and was then able to control the gold and salt trade and keep it out of the hands of the Arab marauders.

Mali, Republic of  (name until 1959: French Sudan) A large country in West Africa. Economy: subsistence agriculture includes livestock (sheep, cattle, camels), rice millet, cassava, cotton, and groundnuts. River fishing is important and dried and smoked fish, together with cattle and groundnuts, are the main exports. Industry is based on hides and food processing. Bauxite, uranium, and oil are present but only salt and small quantities of gold are exploited. History: occupied by successive empires, the area was conquered in the 19th century by the French and, as French Sudan, it became part of French West Africa. It achieved internal self-government as part of the French Community in 1958 and became a fully independent republic in 1960. In 1968, the government was overthrown in a military coup led by Lt Moussa Traoré (1936–  ), who became president in 1969. He was replaced in a coup in 1991 by Lt-Col Amadou Touré (1948–  ). Official language: French. Official currency: Mali franc of 100 centimes. Area: 1,204,021 sq km (464 752 sq mi). Population (1988 est): 7,784,000. Capital: Bamako.

Niger,  The Great Ptolemy wrote of the Roman expeditions to the Aïr Massif, describing many Neolithic remains of an early rural society that had been in the desert areas of Niger. In 1100 AD, Tuareg migrated from the desert to the Aïr region, where they later established a state centered at Agadez. This was to be found on a major trans-Saharan caravan route, which connected North Africa to the present-day North Nigeria. In East Niger, Bilma, a salt-mining center, was on another important trans-Saharan route that linked North Africa with the state of Bornu, which is now in Nigeria.

Around 1400 AD, the Hausa who were in the south founded several city-states in Niger. In the 1600’s, much of West and central Niger came under the Songhai empire and after the fall of Songhai at the end of the 16th century. East and central Niger passed to Bornu. In the 17oo’s. the Djerma people settled in SW Niger near the Niger River. 

Aïr Mountains. Just south of the Ténéré Desert are the Aïr Mountains, home to the Tuareg, and the beginning of the long desert camel treks in search of salt. It is the last hospitable stop before the harshness of the Ténéré Desert. The Aïr Massif is one of the most spectacular sights in West Africa. It covers an area the size of Switzerland, and has black rocks capped by unusually sharp peaks. Hidden in the interior are the hot thermal springs at Tafadek, the green oases of Timia and Iferouâne, and the spectacular waterfalls just outside of Timia.

Ptolemy (aka Claudius Ptolemaeus, Ptolomaeus, Klaudios Ptolemaios, Ptolemeus) lived in Alexandria (in Egypt) from  approx. 87 -150 AD. Very little is known about his personal life (the image above is probably purely the artist's imagination)

 He was an astronomer, mathematician and geographer. He codified the Greek geocentric view of the universe, and rationalized the apparent motions of the planets, as they were known in his time. 

Niger. A large country in West Africa, lying mainly in the Sahara. Economy: agriculture, particularly livestock raising, is important. Mineral resources include salt, natron, tin, and uranium. The main exports are uranium and groundnuts, followed by livestock. History: occupied by France (1883–99), it became a territory of French West Africa in 1904. It won independence in 1960. President: Col Ali Seybou. Population (1988 est): 7 190 000. Capital: Niamey.

Chad over millennia, just like most of the Saharan landmass, natural features that were once dominant have changed. Five hundred years before Christ was born, Lake Chad was a huge expanse of water, because the climate was much wetter, wild animals were abundant and this old scenario of paradise Sahara perpetuates. In the devastating drought 0f 1984, it was possible to walk across the lake. 

Today, in the far north of the country, in the desert that was once an inland sea, archaeologists have uncovered a rich range of fossils, along with rock engravings made by hunters.

These early people began farming cattle in settlements that later became walled cities. The Sao people developed the 'lost wax' method of bronze sculpture and were experts at pottery. Before 800 AD, people starting emigrating from the Nile Valley, intermarrying with the Sao and eventually overwhelming them. Over the next 300 years, increased trade in salt, slaves, copper and gold brought merchants from the Mediterranean and the lower Nile. By 1200 AD, Islam was the dominant religion and Chad prospered on the back of slaves, becoming known as Kanem-Bornu, and held the mantle of 'empire' up until the 17th century. 

Chad, Republic of  (French name: Tchad) A country consisting mainly of semi desert in N central Africa. The land rises from Lake Chad in the SW to the Tibesti Mountains in the N, reaching heights of about 3400 m (11 000 ft). The majority of the population (concentrated in the S) is Sara, a Bantu people; the nomadic peoples of the N are largely Muslims. Economy: mainly subsistence agriculture with livestock and fishing. The exports are cotton and meat. History: one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa, it had internal self-government as a member of the French Community from 1958, gaining independence in 1960. Since 1963, there has been ethnic unrest in the N. In 1990, the government was overthrown and the new president, Idriss Deby, promised democratic reform. Official language: French. Official currency: CFA (Communauté financière africaine) franc of 100 centimes. Area: 1,284,000 sq km (495,624,sqmi). Population (1987 est): 5,241,000. Capital: N’djamena (formerly Fort Lamy).

Sudan. A large country in NE Africa, bordering on the Red Sea. Economy: chiefly agricultural, the main cash crop and export is cotton. Livestock rearing is important. Forest products include gum arabic and iron ore, gold, and manganese are mined. History: the NE was part of ancient Nubia. Christianized in the 6th century, the region was converted to Islam after the 13th century. In 1821 it was conquered by the Egyptians, against whom a revolt under the Mahdi took place in 1881. In 1898, an Anglo-Egyptian force under Kitchener subdued his followers and in 1899, an Anglo-Egyptian  group was established. In 1956, the Sudan became an independent republic. A coup in 1969 brought Col Jaafar al Nemeiry (1929–  ) to power. In the midst of widespread famine and virtual civil war in 1985, Nemeiry was overthrown and civilian rule re-established. Military rule returned in 1989 with a coup led by Brig Omar Hassan Ahmed el-Bashir. The early 1990s have seen continuing civil strife. Official language: Arabic; English is widely spoken. Official currency: Sudanese pound of 100 piastres and 1000 millièmes.    Area: 2,500,000 sq km (967,500 sq mi). Population (1987 est): 25 550 000. Capital: Khartoum. Main port: Port Sudan

The biggest country in Africa and the ninth largest in the world, the Sudan was second only to Egypt in its historical importance. This is mainly due, like Egypt, to the Nile and all that it held. If you fly along the Nile now you can see the abundance of vegetation and life that parallels it but go to far and the real Sahara takes over. Perhaps if it was not for the greatest river on Earth the Sudan would be mostly desert now also. But imagine what splendor these lands were in the times of Homer, he knew of these rich lands and sent traders to bring back cloth, wine and trinkets for gum-arabic, spices and slaves. Nero sent a reconnaissance mission far up the river but the experience with the vast and impenetrable papyrus swamp in the southern Sudan, that the Arabs called the ‘sudd’ dissuaded the emperor from any thought of conquest.

Sudan was invaded in the 600's by people of Semitic stock from the north. They wanted to impose their religious beliefs on Africans in Nubia, who were Christians of the Nubian Churches. The invaders were crushed and severely defeated by the Nubian Emperor, Kalydosos

During the peace treaty which came about due to the defeat of the Semites, Bakt (tribute) was imposed on Nubia as a condition for the Semites not harassing Nubian territory. The imposition of Bakt led to the introduction of the beginning of SLAVERY OF BLACKS BY THE SEMITICS.

SEMITIC INVASION AND SLAVERY LED TO THE DESTRUCTION OF BLACK CIVILIZATIONS

Despite the defeat of the Semites, they used another form of destruction that has had a lasting effect on Black civilization. That evil was slavery, and the justification was the same one used by some Christians to justify the enslavement of Blacks. The religious writings of the Semites was used to justify their enslavement of Africans.